Finally, construction and reconstruction, or Stage 5 (college and beyond), describes the attainment of adult reading skills. Overall language may predict reading at Stage 4. Complex language skills are required to understand multiple viewpoints and increased depth of material. Multiple viewpoints, or Stage 4 (ages 14–18 years ninth through 12th grades), describes the refining of students’ reading skills as students become able to read and comprehend complex information. ![]() A student’s vocabulary may be predictive of reading in Stage 3. According to Chall, there is a growing importance of word meaning and prior knowledge in Stage 3. In this stage, students are able to use reading as a tool for learning new information. Learning the new, or Stage 3 (ages 10–12 years fourth through eighth grades), incorporates the transition from learning to read to reading to learn. Phonological awareness may predict reading fluency at this stage. The child now uses familiar context and semantic knowledge along with decoding skills to identify unfamiliar words and gain fluency and speed. The next stage, confirmation and fluency, or Stage 2 (ages 7–9 years second and third grades), involves fluency and speed. The decoding stage, or Stage 1 (ages 6 to 7 years first grade and the beginning of second grade), includes the development of letter-sound correspondence rules and use of the alphabetic principle. According to Chall, pre-reading, or Stage 0 (ages birth to 6 years and prior to first grade), refers to emergent literacy during which students are exposed to print, learn graphemes, and memorize labels and signs in the environment. Chall’s (1983) stages of reading development describe how reading develops across the life span. ![]() ![]() Stage theories have commonly been used to describe the process of literacy development, although the required number of stages needed to attain proficiency in reading differs according to the theorist. The purpose of the present study was to determine which linguistic and nonlinguistic cognitive factors are related to reading skills for students with a history of SSD only, students with SSD and LI, and students with no history of SSD at three stages of literacy development.Stages of Literacy Development However, there is little information concerning the developmental factors that predict reading ability at different ages and the impact of SSD on reading skills at various ages. Studies have also suggested that students with speech sound disorders (SSD) are at risk for RD ( Foy & Mann, 2012 Lewis, Freebairn, & Taylor, 2000 Peterson, Pennington, Shriberg, & Boada, 2009). It is well established that students with language impairment (LI) are at risk for RD ( Bishop & Adams, 1990 Raitano, Pennington, Tunick, Boada, & Shriberg, 2004 Snowling, Bishop, & Stothard, 2000). Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) have become increasingly involved in the prevention and remediation of reading disorders (RD) due to the link between RD and oral language skills ( Catts, Fey, Zhang, & Tomblin, 2001 Fallon & Katz, 2011).
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